The detection of various target analytes or molecules is an important tool for a variety of application including diagnostic medicine, molecular biology research and detection of contaminants, to name a few. While method of detecting different analytes has evolved, the ability to detect numerous target analytes simultaneously has proven difficult. Detection of multiple proteins, for example has been limited to conventional electrophoresis assays or immunoassays. There has not been a significant multiplexed protein detection assay or method.
The detection of specific nucleic acids is an important tool for diagnostic medicine and molecular biology research. Gene probe assays currently play roles in identifying infectious organisms such as bacteria and viruses, in probing the expression of normal and mutant genes and identifying mutant genes such as oncogenes, in typing tissue for compatibility preceding tissue transplantation, in matching tissue or blood samples for forensic medicine, and for exploring homology among genes from different species.
Ideally, a gene probe assay should be sensitive, specific and easily automatable (for a review, see Nickerson, Current Opinion in Biotechnology 4:48-51 (1993)). The requirement for sensitivity (i.e. low detection limits) has been greatly alleviated by the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other amplification technologies which allow researchers to amplify exponentially a specific nucleic acid sequence before analysis (for a review, see Abramson et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 4:41-47 (1993)).
Specificity, in contrast, remains a problem in many currently available gene probe assays. The extent of molecular complementarity between probe, and target defines the specificity of the interaction. Variations in the concentrations of probes, of targets and of salts in the hybridization medium, in the reaction temperature, and in the length of the probe may alter or influence the specificity of the probe/target interaction.
It may be possible under some circumstances to distinguish targets with perfect complementarity from targets with mismatches, although this is generally very difficult using traditional technology, since small variations in the reaction conditions will alter the hybridization. New experimental techniques for mismatch detection with standard probes include DNA ligation assays where single point mismatches prevent ligation and probe digestion assays in which mismatches create sites for probe cleavage.
Recent focus has been on the analysis of the relationship between genetic variation and phenotype by making use of polymorphic DNA markers. Previous work utilized short tandem repeats (STRs) as polymorphic positional markers; however, recent focus is on the use of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which occur at an average frequency of more than 1 per kilobase in human genomic DNA. Some SNPs, particularly those in and around coding sequences, are likely to be the direct cause of therapeutically relevant phenotypic variants and/or disease predisposition. There are a number of well known polymorphisms that cause clinically important phenotypes; for example, the apoE2/3/4 variants are associated with different relative risk of Alzheimer's and other diseases (see Corder et al., Science 261:921-923 (1993). Multiplex PCR amplification of SNP loci with subsequent hybridization to oligonucleotide arrays has been shown to be an accurate and reliable method of simultaneously genotyping at least hundreds of SNPs; see Wang et al., Science, 280:1077 (1998); see also Schafer et al., Nature Biotechnology 16:33-39 (1998). However, in Wang et al. only 50% of 558 SNPs were amplified successfully in a single multiplexed amplification reaction. As such, there exists a need for methods that increase the fidelity and robustness of multiplexing assays.
Accordingly, highly multiplexed detection or genotyping of nucleic acid sequences is desirable to permit a new scale of genetic analysis. Simultaneously detecting many hundreds, to multiple thousands of nucleic acid sequences, will require methods which are sensitive and specific despite high background complexity. In order for such reactions to be conducted at low cost to permit widespread use of such techniques, uniform sample preparation and reaction conditions must be applied, preferably in an automatable fashion. A variety of various nucleic acid reaction schemes, amplification techniques, and detection platforms have been used in the past toward this end goal, but none have been able to robustly achieve sensitive, accurate levels of multiplexing beyond a few hundred loci.
In addition, DNA methylation is widespread and plays a critical role in the regulation of gene expression in development, differentiation and disease. Methylation in particular regions of genes, for example their promoter regions, can inhibit the expression of these genes (Baylin, S. B. and Herman, J. G. (2000) DNA hypermethylation in tumorigenesis: epigenetics joins genetics. Trends Genet, 16, 168-174.; Jones, P. A. and Laird, P. W. (1999) Cancer epigenetics comes of age. Nat Genet, 21, 163-167.). Recent work has shown that the gene silencing effect of methylated regions is accomplished through the interaction of methylcytosine binding proteins with other structural compounds of the chromatin (Razin, A. (1998) CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing-a three-way connection. Embo J, 17, 4905-4908.; Yan, L., Yang, X. and Davidson, N. E. (2001) Role of DNA methylation and histone acetylation in steroid receptor expression in breast cancer. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia, 6, 183-192.), which, in turn, makes the DNA inaccessible to transcription factors through histone deacetylation and chromatin structure changes (Bestor, T. H. (1998) Gene silencing. Methylation meets acetylation. Nature, 393, 311-312.). Genomic imprinting in which imprinted genes are preferentially expressed from either the maternal or paternal allele also involves DNA methylation. Deregulation of imprinting has been implicated in several developmental disorders (Kumar, A. (2000) Rett and ICF syndromes: methylation moves into medicine. J Biosci, 25, 213-214.; Sasaki, H., Allen, N. D. and Surani, M. A. (1993) DNA methylation and genomic imprinting in mammals. Exs, 64, 469-486.; Zhong, N., Ju, W., Curley, D., Wang, D., Pietrofesa, J., Wu, G., Shen, Y., Pang, C., Poon, P., Liu, X., Gou, S., Kajanoja, E., Ryynanen, M., Dobkin, C. and Brown, W. T. (1996) A survey of FRAXE allele sizes in three populations. Am J Med Genet, 64, 415-419.).
In vertebrates, the DNA methylation pattern is established early in embryonic development and in general the distribution of 5-methylcytosine (5 mC) along the chromosome is maintained during the life span of the organism (Razin, A. and Cedar, H. (1993) DNA methylation and embryogenesis. Exs, 64, 343-357.; Reik, W., Dean, W. and Walter, J. (2001) Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development. Science, 293, 1089-1093.). Stable transcriptional silencing is critical for normal development, and is associated with several epigenetic modifications. If methylation patterns are not properly established or maintained, various disorders like mental retardation, immune deficiency and sporadic or inherited cancers may follow. The study of methylation is particularly pertinent to cancer research as molecular alterations during malignancy may result from a local hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes, along with a genome wide demethylation (Schulz, W. A. (1998) DNA methylation in urological malignancies (review). Int J Oncol, 13, 151-167.).
The initiation and the maintenance of the inactive X-chromosome in female eutherians were found to depend on methylation (Goto, T. and Monk, M. (1998) Regulation of X-chromosome inactivation in development in mice and humans. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 62, 362-378.). Rett syndrome (RTT) is an X-linked dominant disease caused by mutation of MeCP2 gene, which is further complicated by X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) pattern. The current model predicts that MeCP2 represses transcription by binding methylated CpG residues and mediating chromatin remodeling (Dragich, J., Houwink-Manville, I. and Schanen, C. (2000) Rett syndrome: a surprising result of mutation in MECP2. Hum Mol Genet, 9, 2365-2375.).
Finally, it has become a major challenge in epidemiological genetics to relate a biological function (e.g. a disease) not only to the genotypes of specific genes but also to the potential differential expression levels of each allele of the genes. DNA methylation data can provide valuable information, in addition to the genotype. While it is difficult to obtain the allele-specific methylation information, one object of the invention is to provide methods to determine this information, e.g. if 0, or 1 or 2 chromosomes are methylated at particular genomic locations.
In addition, the identification, classification and prognostic evaluation of tumors has until now depended on histopathological criteria. The purpose of a classification scheme is to identify subgroups of tumors with related properties, which can be further studied and compared with each other. Such classification has been an essential first step in identifying the causes of various types of cancer and in predicting their clinical behavior. However, molecular and biochemical characteristics are not revealed by these approaches. Therefore, the current classification of tumors, although useful, is insufficiently sensitive for prognostic assessment of individual patients (especially for early diagnosis) and for probing the underlying mechanisms involved. An integration of a broad range of information from genetic, biochemical and morphological approaches is needed.
The feasibility of molecular classification and prediction of cancers has been demonstrated using the method of monitoring overall gene expression (Golub, T. R., Slonim, D. K., Tamayo, P., Huard, C., Gaasenbeek, M., Mesirov, J. P., Coller, H., Loh, M. L., Downing, J. R., Caligiuri, M. A., Bloomfield, C. D. and Lander, E. S. (1999) Molecular classification of cancer: class discovery and class prediction by gene expression monitoring. Science, 286, 531-537.). A mathematical model can be developed to predict the disease type without prior pathological diagnosis. However, it is rather difficult to produce reproducible and accurate RNA-based gene expression profiling data under different experimental settings (Lockhart, D. J. and Winzeler, E. A. (2000) Genomics, gene expression and DNA arrays. Nature, 405, 827-836.). Furthermore, it is hard to compare the gene expression data generated from different laboratories using different technology platforms and assay conditions (Roth, F. P. (2001) Bringing out the best features of expression data. Genome Res, 11, 1801-1802.). In addition, there, is scarce availability of reliable patient RNA samples.
DNA methylation pattern changes at certain genes often alter their expression, which could lead to cancer metastasis, for example. Thus, in one object of the invention a detailed study of methylation pattern in selected, staged tumor samples compared to matched normal tissues from the same patient offers a novel approach to identify unique molecular markers for cancer classification. Monitoring global changes in methylation pattern has been applied to molecular classification in breast cancer (Huang, T. H., Perry, M. R. and Laux, D. E. (1999) Methylation profiling of CpG islands in human breast cancer cells. Hum Mol Genet, 8, 459-470.). In addition, many studies have identified a few specific methylation patterns in tumor suppressor genes (for example, p16, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor) in certain human cancer types (Herman, J. G., Merlo, A., Mao, L., Lapidus, R. G., Issa, J. P., Davidson, N. E., Sidransky, D. and Baylin, S. B. (1995) Inactivation of the CDKN2/p16/MTS1 gene is frequently associated with aberrant DNA methylation in all common human cancers. Cancer Res, 55, 4525-4530.; Otterson, G. A., Khleif, S. N., Chen, W., Coxon, A. B. and Kaye, F. J. (1995) CDKN2 gene silencing in lung cancer by DNA hypermethylation and kinetics of p16INK4 protein induction by 5-aza 2′deoxycytidine. Oncogene, 11, 1211-1216.).
RLGS profiling of methylation pattern of 1184 CpG islands in 98 primary human tumors revealed that the total number of methylated sites is variable between and in some cases within different tumor types, suggesting there may be methylation subtypes within tumors having similar histology (Costello, J. F., Fruhwald, M. C., Smiraglia, D. J., Rush, L. J., Robertson, G. P., Gao, X., Wright, F. A., Feramisco, J. D., Peltomali, P., Lang, J. C., Schuller, D. E., Yu, L., Bloomfield, C. D., Caligiuri, M. A., Yates, A., Nishikawa, R., Su Huang, H., Petrelli, N. J., Zhang, X., O'Dorisio, M. S., Held, W. A., Cavenee, W. K. and Plass, C. (2000) Aberrant CpG-island methylation has non-random and tumour-type-specific patterns. Nat Genet, 24, 132-138.). Aberrant methylation of a proportion of these genes correlates with loss of gene expression. Based on these observations, in one object of the invention the methylation pattern of a sizable group of tumor suppressor genes or other cancer-related genes will be used to classify and predict different kinds of cancer, or the same type of cancer in different stages.
Since methylation detection uses genomic DNA, but not the RNA, it offers advantages in both the availability of the source materials and ease of performing the assays. Thus, the methylation assay will be complementary to those based on RNA-based gene expression profiling. It is also possible that the use of different assays in combination may be more accurate and robust for disease classification and prediction.
Thus, methylation is involved in gene regulation. Altered methylation patterns have been associated with various types of diseases including cancers.
Accordingly, it is an object of the invention to provide methods for high-throughput genome-wide detection of genomic amplifications, deletions or methylation. For methylation, previously methods were limited to detection of whether either one of the two chromosomes at a locus were methylated. However, it was not possible to determine if the methylation occurs on one or both chromosomes. Accordingly, the present invention provides a method for determining if zero, one or both chromosomes are methylated at a locus.
Accordingly, it is an object of the invention to provide a very sensitive and accurate multiplexed approach for nucleic acid detection and detection of methylation with uniform sample preparation and reaction conditions.